Gender Inequality in Literature - 1223 Words

Gender Inequality in Literature Gender equality, men and women having the same rights and obligations, and everyone having the same opportunities in society, has been a topic of discussion for many centuries (Dorious and Firebaugh). Women have used literature as a voice to defend their gender equality rights. Female authors have tried to achieve extraordinary success in literature while functioning in a culture that frowned upon female literary desire. Men greatly dominate the profession (Dorious and Firebaugh). Until well into the nineteenth century, it was common for both male and female writers to publish under a pseudonym. Fiction was a genre that was frequently published anonymously. Fiction was considered a low genre of literature leading many authors to detach his or her name from the piece of fiction. For women especially, the cloak of anonymity was particularly essential (Dorious and Firebaugh). Female proclamation and self-revelation were viewed as unwomanly. Therefore, wri ting under the identity of a man would protect a woman from the criticism for having â€Å"unladylike thoughts†. The male alias could potentially increase a female’s chances of receiving an unprejudiced review. Throughout history, women have had a weak voice in the literary world due to fear of the power women had and the lack of respect for females. The first women’s rights convention was organized by 68 women and 32 men in 1848. As a result, a document titled â€Å"The Declaration of Sentiments† wasShow MoreRelatedGender Inequality in Literature Essay1187 Words   |  5 PagesGender equality, men and women having the same rights and obligations, and everyone having the same opportunities in society, has been a topic of discussion for man and women for centuries (Dorious and Firebaugh). For many centuries, women have used literature as a voice used to defend their rights as women. Female authors achieved extraordinary success in literature functioning in a culture that frowned upon female literary desire but men still dominated the profession (Dorious and Firebaugh). UntilRead MoreMod B: Critical Study Essay- speeches (Lessing + Atwood)1035 Words   |  5 Pagesfocused her speech on the relationship between education and poverty and as such, conveyed education as the means to escape poverty. Atwood’s orati on was delivered to a well-read audience and draws attention to gender inequality by examining the unfair representation of women in literature. The worth of Lessing’s speech lies in her ability to evoke a response to world poverty, from her audience, through her emotionally gripping use of rhetoric. The euphemistic allusion to the Nobel prizes in â€Å"I don’tRead MoreGender Inequality in Womens Rugby1181 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction As the nation’s gender inequality continues to diminish, things like sports stereotypes, and labour force conflict cannot be understood without understanding the term of identity. Identity work is explained by Schwalbe and Mason-Schrock in 1996 as â€Å"anything people do, individually or collectively, to give meaning to themselves or others† (as cited in Ezzell, 2009, p. 1). I propose to examine inequality based on gender identity and in depth the process of stereotype issues, - how peopleRead MoreIdentity in the Workplace Creates Gender Inequality801 Words   |  3 PagesAs the nation’s gender inequality continues to diminish, things like sports stereotypes, and labour force conflict cannot be understood without understanding the term of identity. Identity work is explained by Schwalbe and Mason-Schrock in 1996 as â€Å"anything people do, individually or collectively, to give meaning to themselves or others† (as cited in Ezzell, 2009, p. 1). I propos e to examine inequality based on gender identity and in depth the process of stereotype issues, - how people constructRead MoreGender Discrimination And The Workplace1356 Words   |  6 Pages2.1 Introduction For many decades now it has been said that there has been inequality in the workplace, it has been a major issue in the workplace in terms of women not being allowed to have certain jobs as well as in terms of women not being promoted within the workplace which all contributes to women being paid less than men. According to Ryan and Branscombe (2013), gender discrimination has been defined as the differential treatment members of one group receive compared to another by many socialRead MoreEducation Is Not An Equal Opportunity For Everyone1473 Words   |  6 PagesAdrienne Rich’s essay, â€Å"Taking Women Students Seriously†, she speaks of the inequality mainly affecting women while subtly hinting at the inequality present in education in regards to race and class. Gender, race and class are three characteristics that work together to create either a positive or negative profile for one’s education. When delving into the content of Rich’s essay, the author clearly indicates her focus on the gender imbalance in education and how that impacts the lives of women. Women’sRead MoreWhy Education Is Not An Equal Opportunity For Everyone1259 Words   |  6 PagesAdrienne Rich’s essay, Taking Women Students Seriously, she speaks of the inequality mainly affecting women while subtly hinting at the inequality present in education in regards to race and class. Gender, race and class are three characteristics that work together to create either a positive or negative profile for one’s education. When delving into the content of Rich’s essay, the author clearly indicates her focus on the gender imbalance in education and how that impacts the lives of women. Women’sRead MoreRacial Gap And Social Mobility1139 Words   |  5 Pagesincome distribution by race. A society can be in a position of high absolute mobility and also low relative mobility. The availability of at least some social mobility is key in providing conduits to greater equality in societies with high social inequality. Social mobility however can typically be hypothesized in terms of its direction and distance based on the quantity of the movement. There is complexity in trying to analyze the different rates that constitute the mobility structure of a societyRead More Medea and Lysistrata Essay552 Words   |  3 PagesLysistrata Medea and Lysistrata are two Greek literatures that depict the power which women are driven to achieve in an aim to defy gender inequality. In The Medea, Medea is battling against her husband Jason whom she hates. On the other hand, in Aristophanes Lysistrata, the protagonist Lysistrata plotted to convince and organize the female gender to protest against the stubbornness of men. In terms of defining the purpose of these two literatures, it is apparent that Euripedes and AristophanesRead MoreThe Multifaceted State Of South Africa Underwent Vast Reconstruction1518 Words   |  7 Pageshistorical disadvantages coupled with the gendered inequality and environment of economic turbulence exasperated the poverty of women in South Africa due to the conflicting multidimensional responsibility women faced, a lack of representation in the political and economic market as well as lack of access to essential social services and land within the region. Literature Review A major understanding that was found throughout the scholarly literature associated with the phenomenon of women’s poverty

Essay about Christendom and The Song of Roland - 1119 Words

The Song of Roland is the oldest epic poem in French, written by an anonymous poet, composed in between late eleven century to twelfth century. This epic poetry holds an important place in the history of France and invention of Christendom. The Song of Roland is a cultural artifact that takes us to the journey of Medieval Europe, when religion becomes an important element for the formation of proto-Europe. Religion plays a crucial role in The Song of Roland and becomes the reason of criticism. Some readers might take this poem as a religious text, whereas, for some reader it is a fictional literary work and contain ideological perspective. The Song of Roland cannot be consider as a religious text, however, the poet uses religion for†¦show more content†¦The time, when The Song of Roland was composed, is the era of creating national identity for diverse kingdoms to unite and form a harmonious cultural area. To recognize the â€Å"self† it becomes important to separates the â€Å"other† in terms of race, religion and culture. For The Song of Roland, religion is selected to separate â€Å"others†. The misrepresentation of Muslims as pagans can be found throughout the poem, which helps Christians to recognize themselves righteous and superior to Muslims. Davies Norman quotes T.S. Eliot in Europe: A History, â€Å"The dominant feature in creating a common culture†¦is religion†¦ I am talking about the common tradition of Christianity which has made Europe.† (Norman qtd. Eliot 9). Eliot emphasizes the importance of Christianity for Europe. Christianity become a symbol for medieval Europe and gives a label of â€Å"Christendom† to the nation. The self-recognition by separating others continues. In thirteen and fourteenth century, Christians gain prejudice by persecuting and demonizing Jews. George M. Frederickson quotes Joshua Trachtenberg in Religion and Invention of Racism, â€Å"Not being a human being but a demonic, a diabolic beast fighting the forces of truth†¦was the Jew as medieval Europe saw him.† (Frederickson 21). Followed by Dante Alighieri illustration of Hell (Inferno), Purgatory (Purgatorio) and Paradise (Paradiso) in The Divine Comedy in 1321, where Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was placed inShow MoreRelatedWhat Is The Theme Of The Song Of Roland1747 Words   |  7 PagesThe Song of Roland is the foundation of the French literary tradition. One of the earliest poems written in French, it describes the process by which France left behind its Germanic past as a loose confederation of powerful families and accepted its future as a Christian nation united by loyalties to king and country. T his story is told as a clash of powerful personalities who are together engaged in a holy war against the Muslims in Spain. Unfortunately, the role of ignorance and jealousy combiningRead MoreLegitimacy Of Charlemagne And Charles The Great1449 Words   |  6 Pagesthe Franks, the Defender of Christendom, the Emperor of Rome, and he was even said to be the Father of Europe. However, the question is which factor made it possible in order to justify his rule. Many historians say that the most important factor was only the fact that he was a great military leader, however, his heredity as well as the fact that he was a great military leader who also used his military to spread Christianity, being he was the Defender of Christendom, both played great part in legitimizingRead MoreLa Chanson De Roland, And The Song Of Roland1802 Words   |  8 PagesLa Chanson de Roland, or The Song of Roland, is the oldest surviving French poem. It is also the oldest and greatest of the chansons de gest e, medieval epic poems written in French. In old French, geste means a deed or action, often of heroic proportions. A hundred or so of these epic poems survive, dating from around the year 1100 to the late fourteenth century. In their time, they were exceedingly popular. Although we know neither the identity of The Song of Roland s composer nor the date ofRead MoreThe History of Arianism Essay1423 Words   |  6 Pagesverse of his major work, the Thalia. It was widely spread by popular songs written for laborers and travelers. He started off as a priest in Alexandria, where he tried to teach his beliefs but was shortly exonerated locally from his community for teaching Arianism (Arius). After being condemned and deprived of his office Arius fled to Palestine and spread his doctrine there among the masses through his poetry and popular songs. He also had some help spreading his teachings through influential leadersRead More Humanities in the Early, High And Late Middle Ages Essay2132 Words   |  9 Pages Fiero (2002) states Germanic traditions, including those of personal valor and heroism associated with a warring culture, are reflected in the epic poems of the Early Middle Ages. The three most famous of these, Beowulf, The Song of the Nibelungen, and the Song of Roland, were transmitted orally for hundreds of years before they were written down sometime between the tenth and thirteenth centuries. (p.71) Although this age had a brief renaissance, the Early Middle Ages was a shadow of the greatRead MoreEssay about Humanities in the Early, High and Late Middle Ages2248 Words   |  9 PagesFiero (2002) states Germanic traditions, including those of personal valor and heroism associated with a warring culture, are reflected in the epic poems of the Early Middle Ages. The three most famous of these, Beowulf, The Song of the Nibelungen, and the Song of Roland, were transmitted orally for hundreds of years before they were written down sometime between the tenth and thirteenth centuries. (p.71) Although this age had a brief renaissance, the Early Middle Ages was a shadow of the greatRead MoreFeudalism2848 Words   |  12 Pagesthe guy at the top-even smaller and smaller units. With this increase in decentralization, or weakening of central power in Europe†¦ For a while, the Eastern emperor was the only person that even looked like a ruler to many members of Latin Christendom, and they did exercise some power over the folks in the west. But even that was on the wane. In 660, Constantine II visited Rome with a sizable army and an assembly of nobles. Everyone came out to greet him, big parade. A diplomatic mission?

A word is half the sender, and half the receptor Free Essays

Today, more than ever, language is an integral part of our existence and survival. We depend on it to think and communicate on a day to day basis from person to person. Language as a basic communication takes the form of: sender, message and receiver, and is said to be highly specialized and sophisticated. We will write a custom essay sample on A word is half the sender, and half the receptor or any similar topic only for you Order Now Language allows us to communicate an infinite variety of messages; indeed, sometimes messages are unclear or vague because both the sender and receiver might not have the exact same understanding of their language. This last problem of communication that is unclear or vague is one that results from the use of words for which the range of application is not clear. One could also say that something which is vague is that which lacks precision. This type of vagueness results from statements or words which are not quantifiable and therefore lead to misunderstandings between the sender and the receptor. Montaigne said something very true about the term ‘word’ as it is very difficult to define. To start, what is a word? What is the definition of the term word? All these deceptively simple questions have led to debate among linguists. At its most simple, according to David Crystal, a word is â€Å"a unit of expression which has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers†. However, a word is so much more than that: a word has to be imaginarily divided into the person who say it and into the person that receives it because these two individual members of communication have their own way to interpret what is the idea within that precise word. In order to know the exact meaning of the term ‘word’ we have to take into consideration the fact that some words have a denotation and several connotations. A denotation is the primary or ‘dictionary’ meaning; what the word describes precisely, no more no less. On the other hand, a connotation is the ‘added value’ to a word; what it implies; what is associated or attached to it by society and/or the individual. Some words, for example expressive words, have much more connotation because they create feelings and atmosphere. The term ‘apple’ denotes more than the term ‘food’, and yet the term ‘food’ connotes more than the term ‘apple’. There are some factors that affect the connotation of a word. For example, the term ‘weekend’ has lots of connotations and these will vary depending on the receptor’s age, sex, social class, personal interest, past experience, etc. A 16 year old girl can associate the term ‘weekend’ with: party, friends, cinema, relax, sleep more, have fun; while a 50 year old man who owns a restaurant will associate the term ‘weekend’ with: more customers, more work, more stressful, higher incomes for the company and less time to relax. Communication, that is the â€Å"system of verbal gestures by which a speaker points out a reality to a listener†, requires that the two parties involved have a similar understanding of the language. Such a problem arises when two people speak a different language, but the same thing can occur on a smaller scale if people have a slightly different understanding of the same language. This is because we unconsciously assume that the other person (the receptor) is identical to us in their use of language. This often is as a result of a sender and a receiver (or writer and reader where it happens these same sort of confusions because of misunderstanding of message by problems with their language) who use certain words in a different manner. It is necessary, for communication not to be impeded, that the second individual has the same understanding of a word as the first. That is why it can be said that a word is half the sender and half the receptor as both of them have their own way of interpreting the word and also their own way of recreating it by its meanings in their minds, by all the factors mentioned above. To conclude we can say that language is our most important tool in communication and thus must be employed in order to interact with each and everyone who surrounds us. If it were not employed, communication would be hindered, delayed or even blocked, to a far greater degree than it is due to the problems such as misunderstanding, vagueness or the fact that words have different connotations to everybody. It should be the aim of everyone to, when possible, avoid these problems. The result would be language which is far clearer, precise, and less confusing, that will help both the sender and the receptor in order to transmit a more concrete message and therefore understand themselves in a more optimal way. Language free of most problems would make it an even greater tool, effectively improving the communication between persons and developing better understanding and knowledge through this communication. How to cite A word is half the sender, and half the receptor, Papers

Statistics and MBA

Question: Discuss the use of statistics and the concepts required in the job and educational requirements for this job. Answer: A biostatistician was interviewed to get an idea about the use of statistics in his field. He had joined a company as a biostatistician recently. He wished to survive through this job before pursuing doctorate in biostatistics. The following interview questions were asked to him and his responses were as follows: Use of statistics and the concepts required in the job Biostatistics is the subject where biological events and factors are analysed statistically. Various statistical methods are also used to design different kinds of biological experiments in medicine, agriculture, pharmacy, etc. Descriptive statistical methods like mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and variance, coefficient of variation, skewness and kurtosis are used to analyse the biological data initially and find out the basic qualities of the data. Statistical charts are also used to know the measures of dispersion and central tendency of the data. Designing of models with the biological data are an important part of biostatistics (Forthofer Lee, 2014). Designing models helps to know the form of the data and the influence of factors on each other. ANOVA, ANCOVA, etc. models are used to design the data and analyse them. Fitting of the model is an important part of biostatistics. The fitted model would help to predict the future values of the biological events. Example of the use of statistics and its usefulness in improving a practice or service. An experiment was conducted to know how the occurrence of certain disease does is influenced by the lifestyle, blood group and previous history of the disease. A survey was conducted to know about the patients having the specific disease or those who had the disease. The data was collected from various hospital records. Descriptive analysis was initially done on this data to know about the basic qualities of the data (Kramer 2012). Hypothesis was set accordingly to justify the desired problem. Hypothesis testing and statistical tests like f-test, t-test and ANOVA would be done accordingly and conclusions would be drawn to identify the influencing factors. This would help to develop the medicines and treat the patients in future. Educational requirements for this job (statistical and other requirements) Basic knowledge about statistics is required to get a job of biostatistician. Knowing the basics of probability and statistics and the methods of testing and inference would help to land in such a job. Knowing the biology well is a very important criterion to be a biostatistician. One should have a postgraduate degree in biology and he should have special paper as statistics and probability in his post graduation to be a biostatistician (Motulsky, 2013). Recommendation to study statistics by today's college students It is recommended to study statistics by the college student in todays world. This is because statistics is used widely in every field in modern days world. It helps to predict the future by analysing the past data. This would help to predict a better future and eradicate the past issues (Wassertheil-Smoller, 2013). From the interview, a vast knowledge on the methods of application of statistics in biology could be known. The most interesting and surprising part of the interview was that statistics was widely used in biology. References Forthofer, R. N., Lee, E. S. (2014).Biostatistics: A Guide to Design, Analysis and Discovery. Elsevier. Kramer, M. S. (2012).Clinical epidemiology and biostatistics: a primer for clinical investigators and decision-makers. Springer Science Business Media. Motulsky, H. (2013).Intuitive biostatistics: a nonmathematical guide to statistical thinking. Oxford University Press, USA. Wassertheil-Smoller, S. (2013).Biostatistics and epidemiology: a primer for health professionals. Springer Science Business Media.

Digital TV and Its Consequences A Changing Media Industry

The Invention of Wings by Sue Monk Kidd - Questions

'The Invention of Wings' by Sue Monk Kidd - Questions The Invention of Wings is Sue Monk Kidds third novel. Her first, The Secret Life of Bees, was a book club favorite that gave groups a chance to discuss race issues in the South in the 1960s. In The Invention of Wings, Kidd returns to issues of race and a Southern setting, this time tackling slavery in the early nineteenth century. Kidds novel is fiction, but historical fiction where one of the main characters is based on a true historical figure Sarah Grimke. These questions seek to get at the heart of the novel and help book clubs discuss the many facets of The Invention of Wings. Spoiler Warning: These questions contain details from throughout the novel, including the end. Finish the book before reading on. The novel is presented as a story about two characters, Sarah and Handful. Do you think their relationship with each other is central to how they developed? Or was the chance to read two perspectives more important than the actual relationship?This is also a novel about family relationships and history, particularly as seen through the women in the story. Discuss Sarahs relationship with her mother and sisters and Handfuls with her mother and sister. In what ways did these other women define who Sarah and Handful became?Charlottes story quilt is her greatest treasure. Why do you think that is? How does the ability to tell ones own story shape ones identity?Sarahs familys story relies on slavery. Why was it necessary for Sarah to leave all the things dear to her mother and family Charleston society, beautiful ornamentation, reputation and even place in order to live with her personal convictions? What was the hardest for her to break with?Religion is important throughout the novel, and Kidd gives readers the chance to see many sides of the early nineteenth century church: the white high church in the South, which defended slavery; the black church in the South with its liberation theology; and the Quaker church, with its progressive ideas about women and slaves along with its denial of beautiful clothes and celebrations. Slavery is one of the keys to understanding the complex history of the church in America. Discuss how the novel brings that to light? What did the book make you think about the role of the church? Were you surprised to learn that even among abolitionists the idea of racial equality was radical?Were you surprised by the reactions in the North to the Grimke sisters speaking tour? Were you aware of how strongly women were limited?Even the Grimkes allies suggested they hold back on their feminist views because they thought it would hurt the cause of abolition. Indeed, it did split the movement. Do you think this compromise was justified? Did you think the sisters were justified in not making it?Were you surprised to hear about any of the punishments that were common for slaves, such as the Work House or the one legged punishment? Were any other parts of the history of slavery new to you, such as the information about Denmark Vessey and the planned revolt? Did this novel give you any new perspectives on slavery?If you have read Sue Monk Kidds previous novels, how did this one compare? Rate The Invention of Wings on a scale of 1 to 5. The Invention of Wings by Sue Monk Kidd was published in January 2014It was chosen for Oprahs Book Club before publicationPublisher: Viking Adult384 pages

Proposal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Proposal - Essay Example As such, the SNS developers have to develop strategies that will attract more people. It is clear that people would prefer to work with SNSs that meet their current needs and those that have a personalized interaction. According to Romm-Livermore and Setzekorn (2009) one of the main factor that drives people into social network services is the connection the service creates with other people from all over the world. In addition to this, Caviglione et al. (2013) say that people are more attracted to a social network service if it is able to meet their needs and help them solve the needs. With this understanding, the following research work takes a closer look at some of the determinants of user acceptance of a social network services. As stated earlier, there are multiple SNS platforms out therefore but the main difference among them is the number of people who have signed up for the services. This aims to establish the main factors that drive people into particular SNS and not any other. The last decade has seen a dramatic take over by the Social Network Services and slowly, the industry has been dominated with more and more platform. However, there is a significance difference in terms of the number of user in each platform. By considering this, there are two categories; one group made up of the highest number and the second group of platforms that are almost unknown and have very few people. Matejic (2015) raises concern on the dominance of Facebook and twitter over the rest of the social media platforms. This raises the question as to what really drives people into these platforms. In addition to this, it is important to analyze the impacts of the Social Network Services to the society in general. In this, both the benefits and the negative impacts should be considered. According to SeÃŒ nac et al. (2013) there is

Oil and gas correlation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Oil and gas correlation - Essay Example However, the US domestic production of gas had just picked up and was at the boom phase rendering gas prices low. This means that the global prices of gas were significantly affected downwards as the oil demand plummeted hence the increased price disparity between the two commodities. It is also evident that from 1991, the import of oil by US had reduced but this still represented approximately 40% of the consumption by US against a paltry 5% of gas consumption by the US (YeÃŒ pez-Garcia, Rigoberto , and Julie 86). This is an evident case to support the observed negative correlation. It is also worth to note that the global oil prices are volatile in regard to world market trends, Middle East socio-economic issues and OPEC whims. The increasing technological advancement and campaign for more efficient machines is slowly increasing the use of gas. This means that gas fuel consumption trend will begin to gain influence in the value of dollar hence closing the demand gap it has with the oil. It is also possible that increased exhaustion of gas wells by the US will significantly push the gas prices up as there will be a plan to import more and reserve the domestic stock. YeÃŒ pez-Garcia, Rigoberto A, and Julie Dana. Mitigating Vulnerability to High and Volatile Oil Prices: Power Sector Experience in Latin America and the Caribbean. Washington, D.C: World Bank, 2012.

Feminist Movement Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Feminist Movement - Research Paper Example This discussion will not only focus aspects of changing gender roles among females and males over the last 40 years. Before the 1960’s, a large percentage were only accepted in programs that were perceived as simple and involved social aspects of interaction for instance: Teachers, convent sisters, nurses and secretaries (tavaana.org). However, with the increased advocacy of equality in job opportunities for women in more technical programs in the 1960’s, a significant percentage of women began accessing enrolment in medical schools as well as colleges that provided, many women also began accessing employment in manufacturing industries; however at a lower wages compared to men (tavaana.org). In article published by the United States History, Arts & Archives, it is indicated that women were not given the right to vote before the introduction of the Women’s Suffrage movement. With the introduction of this movement, women were given the right to vote and occupy political offices (history.house.gov). These rights have since saw a shift in political power and decision making issues, leading to a scenario where women can lead the society and make pertinent decisions just like men. In a research undertaken by the Pew Research on Social and Demographic Trends, it was noted that the United States’ Labor Force accounts for 38% women and 62% men since that 1970’s. The research indicated that the number was attributed to the wide range of public consensus concerning the changing role of women and men in the society. Additionally, the study indicated that approximately 75% of the American populace agree that women should not go back to their traditional roles as home cares, but should work equally like men and contribute to their families’ income (www.pewsocialtrends.org). This is another aspect of a change in role between men and men. Over the last four decades, men and women have take almost equal roles in provision of responsibilities in

International Financial Reporting Standards Impact

International Financial Reporting Standards Impact 1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY The adoption rate of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) has been on the ascendency since its inception in 1973. The number of countries that have adopted IFRS as a basis for financial reporting are more than hundred with others agreeing to converge or adopt it by 2011 (Deloitte, 2008). The need for transparency and comparability of financial statement across countries has increased the desire to adopt a single set of global financial accounting reporting standards (IFRS Insight: IASplus, 2008). Trade liberalisation and globalisation of capital markets have given further impetus towards the adoption of IFRS as a single set of high quality globally accepted accounting and reporting standards as against national accounting standards. The contributions of high quality financial reporting systems in national jurisdictions that experience high economic growth, stable fiscal and monetary systems and access to international investment funds cannot be overemphasised (Wong, 200 4). The need to ensure high quality reporting has forced both developed and emerging capital markets to adopt or converge with IFRS, their national accounting standards. Emerging Capital Markets (ECMs), which constitute a significant part of the global financial market, compete with their developed counterparts for investment funds due to globalization of businesses and integration of capital markets. This exposes the financial reporting information in ECMs to international scrutiny. It has been suggested that ECMs ‘lag behind the advanced capital markets in terms of adequacy and reliability of information disclose in annual reports (Ali et al, 2004). The perceived low quality of financial reporting inhibits the growth of ECMs due to its ability to erode the confidence of investors (Enthoven, 1981) and can lower productivity in the economy. Sutton (1997) asserts that a high level of accountability and transparency in corporate dealings increases the confidence of investors in capital markets. It is imperative that high quality financial reporting must be provided to investors to reduce moral hazards as a result of the agency problems created by the separation of ownership from control. Bekaoui (1999) suggests that the adoption of IFRS is the only way to trust accounting information from developing countries. Some ECMs have adopted IFRS to portray that they are following internationally best practice of financial reporting and to take advantage of the worlds investment funds. However, IFRS which is believed to have been developed for the advanced capital markets may not be an ideal accounting standards for ECMs which are made up of small, medium and sometimes family-owned businesses. Nobes (1998) suggests that due to the nature and characteristics of firms in developing/emerging economies, â€Å"the full panoply of the rules of IASs may seem unduly complex; and the resulting financial statements unduly detailed and expensive†. Choi and Mueller (1984) and Belkaoui (2004) support the suggestion of Nobes (1998). In spite of these challenges many countries in emerging economies have allowed their companies to report on the basis of IFRS either mandatorily or volu ntarily. Mandatory adoption of IAS/IFRS have the tendency to deprive firms the opportunity to choose accounting standards that reflect their information needs and the nature of their business. It has been suggested that IFRS adoption is costly but beneficial and at the same time poses challenges to companies (e.g.El-Gazzar, 1999; Jermakowicz, 2004; Barth et al, 2005; Daske and Gebhardt, 2006; Jermakowicz and Gornik-Tomaszewski, 2006; Daske et al, 2007; Tyrall et al, 2007; Hail et al, 2009). Ball (2001) suggests that companies will experience the impact of IFRS adoption differently due to different regulatory framework and institutional factors across different countries. Research into the costs, benefits and challenges of IFRS adoption to ECMs in sub-Saharan Africa, is non-existent to the best knowledge of this researcher. The adoption of IFRS in Ghana might challenge its neighbours to also follow suit. Therefore, research into the cost and benefits and implementation challenges is needed to guide other countries on the decision whether to adopt IFRS for financial reporting. It is in this light that this study is being undertaken. 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The adoption rate of IAS/IFRS has been on the ascendency since its inception in 1973 (IASB.org, 2004). Capital Markets have been forced to adopt IAS/IFRS by the World Bank, International Organisation of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) and World Trade Organisation (WTO), THE European Union (EU) and the International federation of Accountants (IFAC) due to globalization of trade and liberalization of capital markets. The Institute of Chartered Accountants (Ghana) is the body responsible for the issuance of accounting standards in Ghana. Prior to the mandatory adoption of IAS/IFRS 2007, two sets of accounting standards were in use in Ghana; the Ghana Accounting Standards (GAS) issued by the Ghana National Accounting Standards Board(GNASB), and the International Accounting Standards (IAS/IFRS). The Ghana Accounting Standards were adaptation of the International Accounting Standards. Ghana, being a member of the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), allowed companies to issue financial report based on International Accounting Standards. The credibility and quality of financial reporting in emerging capital market have not been able to match the high standards of reporting in developed capital market and Ghana, an emerging economy, is no exception. In 2004, the World Bank commissioned a report into accounting and auditing in Ghana. The report painted a gloomy picture of financial reporting and auditing in Ghana. The World Bank (ROSC-Ghana, 2004, p1) noted that; â€Å"The accounting and auditing practices in Ghana suffer from institutional weaknesses in regulation, compliance and enforcement of standards and rules. Various weaknesses were indentified in the laws and regulation governing financial reporting†. The report observed an inadequate compliance with the Ghana Accounting Standards and also made mention of the fact that some companies claim to comply with the International Accounting Standards in their annual reports but fail to do so. Consequently, the ICA (GHANA) in January 2007 adopted IFRS as the basis for financial reporting for all listed companies beginning 31st December 2007 due to the recommendation made by the World Bank. However, first time IAS/IFRS reporting date for all companies was extended to 2008 due to companies unpreparedness to migrate from Ghana Accounting standards to international standards. In spite of the world-wide acceptance of IAS/IFRS for financial reporting, the jury is still out about the costs and benefits of IFRS implementation to listed companies that adopt IAS/IFRS either voluntary or mandatory (e.g. El-Gazzar et al, 1990; Jermakowicz, 2004; Hoogendoorn, 2006; Jermakowicz and Gomik-Tomaszewski, 2006; Daske et al, 2007; Hail et al, 2009). Generally, little empirical evidence has been provided on whether the costs of IAS/IFRS adoption outweigh the benefits. Specifically, literature on the costs and benefits of IAS/IFRS implementation to listed companies in ECMs in Africa is limited. This study seeks to investigate out the costs and benefits of IFRS adoption to listed companies in Ghana. 1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS Ghana, in a bid to develop its capital markets, established the Ghana Stock Exchange (GSE) in 1989. The GSE became operational in 1990. Currently, there are thirty-four listed companies in Ghana. The adoption of IFRS for financial reporting became mandatory in Ghana after its official launch in 2007 by the Minister of Finance and Economic Planning. However, listed companies were given additional year to fully implement IFRS. These events provide the opportunity to access the impact of IFRS adoption on listed companies in Ghana. The main purpose of the study is to access the costs and benefits of IFRS adoption to listed companies. Primarily, the issue focused on are costs, benefits, and implementation challenges to listed companies in Ghana. The specific research questions pursued in this study are follows: What are the benefits of IFRS adoption to companies in Ghana? What are the costs of implementing IFRS? What challenges do companies in emerging capital markets face as results of IFRS adoption? What are the effects of retrospective application of IFRS (IFRS1) on financial prior periods financial statements? 1.4 METHODOLOGY Two research techniques are used to collect data on the cost, benefits and IFRS implementation challenges. Interviews and content analysis of some selected annual reports are used in this study. The interviews are used to ascertain the opinions on the costs, benefits and implementation challenges of IFRS adoption from ( ) finance directors/chief finance officers/ finance managers whose firms are all listed in Ghana. Interviews were conducted with the Big 4+1 auditing firms in Ghana. These audit firms provide audit and other accountancy services to about 95 % of the listed companies in Ghana. The interviews with auditors were necessary to seek additional insight and to validate the results of the interviews conducted with FD/CFO/FM. 1.5 CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY This study is undertaken bearing in mind the following contributions it intends to achieve: To the best knowledge of this researcher, this study is the first of its kind in Sub-Saharan Africa and could inform policy makers in other ECMs about the costs, benefits and implementation challenges when companies are forced to adoption IFRS as a bases of financial reporting. The study is of tremendous use to the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) to evaluate the costs and benefits of its standards to companies and the implementation challenges to take steps to reduce the costs and challenges and improves on the benefits. This will help the IASB to achieve its aim of standardisation of financial reporting around the globe. The study could also help inform companies worldwide which decide to adopt IFRS voluntarily about the costs, benefits and implementation challenges before venturing into such initiative. 1.6 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY This study has been structured into six chapters. The content of each chapter is detailed below: CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION The background of the study, which comprises the introduction, and the statement of the problem are stated. The appropriate research objectives and specific research questions used to achieve the objectives are specified. The contributions of the study are expressed. The chapter ends with the organization of the entire study. CHAPTER TWO: EMERGING CAPITAL MARKETS AND FINANCIAL REPORTING ENVIRONMENT IN GHANA This chapter starts with the discussion of emerging capital markets. Land and people of Ghana, the economy of Ghana, forms of business ownership, the evolution and the role of the Ghana Stock Exchange, and sources of financial reporting regulation in Ghana are covered in this chapter. The chapter ends with the summary of issues covered in the chapter. CHAPTER THREE: LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter discusses the role of capital markets, the importance of financial reporting in capital markets. The role of listed companies in promoting financial reporting, the history of the International Accounting Standards, recent trends towards worldwide adoption of IFRS, and the importance of IFRS adoption, prior empirical research, and gaps in the literature are covered under this chapter. All these are studied to put the topic in context. The chapter ends with a summary of the issues discussed. CHAPTER FOUR: METHODOLOGY The methods and techniques used to collect the data and their advantages and limitations are discussed. The issues studied in this chapter are: justification for the choice of Ghana, definition of the period studied, profiles of companies and research instruments. The primary data collected through questionnaire and interviews are quantified using descriptive statistics. The chapter ends with the summary of activities undertaken. CHAPTER FIVE: FINDINGS This chapter analyses and discusses the results obtained from the descriptive statistics conducted in previous chapter. CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION This chapter reminds of the research objective and questions studied including the procedure for data collection and analysis. The chapter presents the key findings of the study undertaken. The chapter also presents the limitation of the study and suggestions for future research. It ends with the coverage of the overall conclusion of the study. CHAPTER TWO COUNTRY PROFILE AND FINANCIAL REPORTING ENVIRONMENT IN GHANA 2.1 INTRODUCTION The environment within which a study is undertaken influences the methodology to be used and the weight readers should put on the conclusion drawn from the study. Therefore, understanding the social, political, cultural, and economic within which this study is undertaken is important. This chapter puts the research environment in context. The location and peoples of Ghana is provided in section 2.2. Section 2.3 presents political development in Ghana. Section 2.4 outlines the structure of the Ghanaian economy. The financial reporting system in Ghana is presented in section 2.5. Section 2.8 summaries the issues studied in the chapter. 2. THE LAND AND PEOPLE OF GHANA Ghana is sub-Saharan African country located along the Atlantic Ocean with a total land area of 238,539 square kilometres. Ghana shares borders with Togo, Cote dIvoire and Burkina Faso. There are ten regions in Ghana. These regions are broadly categorised into two: Northern and Southern sector. The major vegetation of the northern sector is savannah but the southern sector is predominantly rainforest belt. The population of the country as at the last population census in 2000 was 18.91 million with an annual growth rate since 1984 2000 of 2.7% (GSS.2007).The population density of the country is 79.3% with greater concentration in the southern part of the country. The temperature is generally between 21-32 °C (70-90 °F). The Ghana Statistical Service puts the literacy rate in the country at 34.2%. There are about 56 different languages in Ghana due to the many ethnic groups. The English language is the official language of the country. 3. POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT IN GHANA Ghana was the first country in sub-Saharan Africa to gain independence from the British in 6th March, 1957. Ghana became a republic in 1 July, 1960. Ghana is a member of many notable international organisations some of which are as follows: the Africa Union, the World Bank Group, the Commonwealth, ECOWAS, International Monetary Fund, Africa Development Bank, the African Peer Review Mechanism and the Economic community of West Africa States. Ghana after going through four successful coup dà ©tats return to democratic rule in 1992 under executive presidency. The nation has enjoyed an uninterrupted democratic regime since 1992. The last election of the country was held on the 7th of December 2008. National Democratic Congress, a party with social democratic ideology took over the reigns of government from the New Patriotic Party- a party with capitalist philosophy. Internationally, Ghana is seen as a beacon of hope on the continent of Africa because of her democratic credentials. 4. THE ECONOMY OF GHANA The economy of Ghana depends predominantly on agriculture, mining and quarrying and forestry. The economy has been designated in three major sector-agriculture, service and industrial sector. Agriculture is the main economic activity and currently accounts for about 34.3 of GDP, followed by 31.0% from the Services sector (GSS, 2007). Ghana relies mostly on Cocoa and Gold for its foreign currency earnings. The industrial sector contributes. Ghana has recently discovered oil in commercial quantities with first lifting expected in the year 2010. The GDP growth rate of the country between 2005 and 2008 are as follows: 5.9%, 6.4%, 6.3% and 7.2% percent respectively (World Bank, 2008). The currency of the country was re- denominated in July 1, 2007 by setting ten thousand Cedis to one Ghana Cedi. This was done to remove dead weight zeros of the old cedis as the volume and value of transaction keeps increasing to make recording easier (GOG, 2008). In 2007, Ghana successfully raised US $750M from the Euro Bond Market. The bond was oversubscribed by the international community. The oversubscription and the quality and internationality of the investors were attributed to the confidence of the international community in the Ghanaian economy (MoFEP, 2008). 5. FINANCIAL REPORTING ENVIRONMENT IN GHANA 2.5.1 Sources of Financial Reporting Regulation in Ghana The government and the private sector are responsible for financial reporting regulation in the country. The government exercise its responsibility through the department and the agencies under its purview namely: Registrar Generals Department, Securities and Exchange Commission, Bank of Ghana and the Insurance Commission. The Ghana Stock Exchange (GSE) and the Institute of Chartered Accountants (Ghana) (ICAG) are the private sector institutions responsible for financial reporting regulation in the country. 2.5.2 The Registrar Generals Department (RGD) Every company in Ghana is expected to registrar with the Registrar of companies in accordance with the Companies Code 1963, Act 179. The Registrar Generals Department in Ghana is responsible for the issuance of certificate of incorporation and commence before a company can start its operating activities. Companies are expected to submit their annual account to the (RGD). The RGD has the power to exempt a company from disclosure requirements. 2.5.3 Bank of Ghana The Banking Law 1989, PNDC 225 gives the Central Bank, Bank of Ghana (BoG) an oversight responsibility over the banking and non-banking financial services institutions in Ghana. Banks and non-banking financial institutions are suppose to comply with financial reporting requirements in Ghana in addition to Manual of Accounting and Auditing specified by the BoG. The BoG regularly visits the banks and nonbanking institutions in the country. Financial and nonfinancial banking institutions are supposed to file their annual returns with the BoG. With the adoption of IFRS Ghana, banking and non-banking financial institutions are required to comply with IFRS in addition to the Accounting and Auditing Manual specified by the BoG and the requirements of the Companies Code 1963, Act 179. 2.5.4 Internal Revenue Service The Internal Revenue Service is empowered by the Government of Ghana to develop the forms and basis of taxation in Ghana. Taxes, which affect corporate financial reporting, are as follows: corporate tax, capital gains tax, stamp duty, gift tax and national reconstruction levy, value added tax and now the Economic Stabilisation Levy.The Customs Excise and Preventive Services (CEPS) levy imports and Exports duties on companies. 2.5.5 Institute of Chartered Accountants (Ghana) An Act of Parliament, Act 170, established the Institute of Chartered Accountants (ICA) (Ghana) in 1963. The Act 170 empowers the ICA (Ghana) as the regulator of financial reporting in Ghana. The members of ICAG are only persons recognised under the Companies Code, Act 179, for the purpose of audit of companys account. Until the adoption of IFRS in Ghana, the Ghana Accounting Standards (GAS) that was in used was adaptation of the IASC standards after the each IASC standard was reviewed. The ICAG is a member of the International Federation of Accountants and Association of Accountancy Bodies in West Africa. 1. Ghana Companies Code 1963, Act 179 The companies code 1963, Act 179 prescribes the nature and form of information which must be provided in the annual reports and accounts of corporate entities in Ghana. The Companies Code defines annual reports and accounts as directors report, profit and loss accounts for a period, balance sheet as at the end of the period, notes to the accounts and the auditors report. Section 124 (1) enjoins directors of corporate entities to prepare and submit audited accounts to members and debenture holders every calendar year at intervals of not more than fifteen months. With the adoption of IFRS companies are required to comply with the requirements of the Companies Code in addition to the measure and disclosure requirements as specified by the IASB. In Ghana, failure to comply with the provisions of the Companies Code carries sanctions. 2.5.6 Ghana Stock Exchange (GSE) The Ghana Stock Exchange (GSE) was incorporated as a private company in 1989 under the Companies Code Act 179(GSE WEBSITE). Trading on the floor of the exchange commenced on November, 1990. There were thirty-five (34) companies listed on the GSE as at 31st December, 2008. Trust Bank Gambia Limited is only foreign issuer on the GSE. The total volume of shares traded on the exchange in the year 2008 were two hundred and six teen million, five hundred and eighty four thousand and six hundred (216,584,600). The year-to-date performance of the GSE as at 31st December, 2008 was 58.06%. The Stock Exchange Listing Regulation 1990, Legislative Instrument No.1509 instructs listed companies to make additional disclosure in their annual reports regarding the number shares and stated capital, information about the company secretary and registrars, transactions with directors, statement of source and application of funds, interim reports and unaudited report to the GSE prior to the submission of a udited annual reports. The role of the GSE is to win the confidence of the investing public (internal and external), protect investors and encourage companies to raise funds through the equity and debt markets. Therefore, IFRS which has been perceived by the IASB to be a high quality accounting standards will help the GSE in their quest to build confidence and protect investors. The focus of this study is the impact of this perceived high quality standards on listed companies in Ghana which to the best knowledge of this researcher has not yet been studied. 2.5.7 International Financial Reporting Standards With the adoption of IFRS in Ghana, listed companies are require to comply with the measurement, presentation and the disclosure requirements of applicable standards in addition to the requirements of the Companies Code 1963 Act 179 and the Banking Law 1989. 6. Summary Globalisation of businesses and integration of capital markets of which GSE is part, makes it imperative that financial reporting practices of listed companies should be reliable, relevant, verifiable, comparable and confirm with international financial reporting standards. Financial reporting is affected by the social, political and economic environment within which its operates. This chapter discussed the country profile of Ghana and the financial reporting environment in Ghana. The next chapter reviews the literature. CHAPTER 3 LITERATURE REVIEW 3.1 INTRODUCTION The issues studied in this chapter include conceptual issues and theoretical framework on the impact of IFRS adoption on companies. Specifically, the issues studied include, the meaning and history of international financial reporting standards, IFRS adoption around the world, the role of capital markets, the relevance of IFRS to emerging capital market and theoretical framework on the impact of IFRS on companies. 3.2 HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING FINANCIAL STANDARDS BOARD (IASB) The International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) is private non-profit making organisation responsible for the development, issuance and approval of accounting standards to form the basis of financial reporting. The objective of the IASB is to, â€Å"provide the worlds capital markets with a single set of high quality accounting standards to be used as a common language for financial reporting† (IASB. org). The IASB came into effect in 2001 to replace the International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC).The IASC was formed by a group of professional accountants from nine countries (Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, United Kingdom/Ireland, and the United States of America) in 1973. Sir Henry Benson, who put forward a proposal for the formation of IASC at the 10th World Congress of Accountants in 1972, was elected the first chair in 1973 (IASPLUS.org). The immediate tasks of the IASC were the development of accounting standards on accounting policies, inventories, and financial statements. The IASC issued its first accounting standards in I975. The accounting standards developed and issued by the IASC were called the International Accounting Standards (IAS). These accounting standards are still in used today. The IASB and its predecessor lack the power and authority to ensure that companies that adopt their them are complying with their standards. They rel y on national standard setters to ensure that companies comply with their standards. 3.3 THE MEANING OF INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL REPORTING STANDARDS Accounting standards are a set of rules, regulation, and convention that guide the preparation of financial statements and financial reports. Accounting standards form the basis for the preparation and auditing of corporate annual report. Accounting standards are developed based on conceptual framework and in the case of the IASB the ‘due process. Conceptual framework for the preparation of account has been described as a constitution (FASB, 1976; Miller, 1985; Solomon, 1986) which forms the basis for developing accounting standards. Conceptual framework are developed to guide standard setters to ensure consistency in issuing future standards and as a guide in settling accounting issues in situations where there are no accounting standard ( IAS.PLUS.org). The conceptual framework defines the elements in the financial statements, how they are recognised, measured and presented which serve as a point of reference to management in situations where there are no accounting standards (IAS. 8). Conceptual framework is not an accounting standard in itself. In situation where there is a clash between a particular standard and conceptual framework, the interpretation of the accounting standard supersedes that of the conceptual framework. The development of accounting standard undergoes several stages before it is published. The process through which a project undergoes before it is finally issued or rejected through voting is known ‘Due Process. ‘Due Process allows interest groups (preparers, users, auditors, analyst, academia etc) to take part in the standard setting process through the submission of comments. In spite of the democratic nature of the standard setting process, prior research document intense lobbying by constituents of the standards setters (see Zeff, 2002; Georgiou, 2004; Cortese et al, 2006). Accounting standards can at best be thought of as a compromise between competing constituents. International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) are developed and issued by the IASB. The standards issued by the IASC are called International Accounting Standards (IAS). IFRS has both narrow and broad meaning (IAS PL US.org). In the narrow sense, IFRS refers to the sets of new standards issued by the IASB different from the previous standards (IASs) issued by the IASC. The IASB has issued eight new standards (IFRS 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8) since 2001. Broadly, IAS 1.11 defines IFRS as the entire standards (IFRSs and IASs) as issued by the IASB and IASC respectively and the interpretations issued by the International Standards Interpretation Committee (IFRIC) and the Standards Interpretation Committee (SIC). 3.4 IFRS ADOPTION AROUND THE WORLDWIDE IFRS has gained acceptance as a single set financial reporting standards in countries around the world. Deloitte (2008) suggests that globalisation of capital markets have created the need to scrap local standards in favour of international standards and benchmarks and attributed IFRS adoption as single set of global accounting standards as the best example towards this end. Deloitte asserts that more than hundred (100) countries have adopted IFRS for financial reporting but others including (Chile, Korea, Brazil, India, and Canada) have agreed to adopt or converge to IFRS by 2011. Chile and Japan have agreed to work the IASB to eliminate the difference between their local GAAP and the IFRS to ensure convergence. The European Union (EU) in 2002 mandated all listed companies within the EU to issue financial report using IFRS beginning 2005 (EC No. 1606/2002). This applies to new countries that will be admitted to the EU membership. This development made the EU the largest customer of the IASB because no continent had and have still not taking such bold initiative. Even though IFRS is mandatory for all listed companies in the EU, the EU does not issue blanket adoption of the standards issued by the IASB. The Accounting Regulatory Committee (ARC) within the European Commission must endorse the standards before they become applicable in the EU. This endorsement process confers political power on EU over the IASB (Whittington, 2005) at least for now. This power would dwindle if the largest capital market of the world, the United States, eventually adopts IASB standards, which has started with the removal of reconciliation requirements ( ) for non-US issuers who issue financial report based on IFRS . In 1993, the IOSOC tasked the IASC to develop ‘core standards to be used for cross boarder listing after the existing standards had been reviewed. The core standards were issued in 1999 and the IOSCO recommended its members to use IASC for cross boarder listing in the year 2000 (IASPLUS.com). Many countries have adopted IFRS due to their association affiliation with politically powerful bodies and their agents, which offer a great deal of assistance, which could be financial, training, trade partnership etc. Ghana perhaps allowed IFRS for financial reporting due to its affiliation with the IFAC (World Bank, 2006) and mandatorily adopted IFRS in 2007 after the recommendation by the World Bank in 2006. The United States, which would, perhaps be the last country to adopt IFRS, has taken a giant step towards converging the US GAAP with the International Accounting Standards Boards. The US SEC has removed the requirements, which ensures that foreign issuers who report based on IFRS reconcile their financial statement with that of the US (SEC, 2007 A.III.2). The US SEC has developed seven milestones, which must be achieved in order for the SEC to determine in 2011 whether IFRS should be mandatory for US issuers in their filings with the SEC in 2014 (SEC, 2008). When the US finally adopts IFRS it would become the language for reporting as other countries would be attracted to do so (Tweedie, refer to assignment). This development when actualised will lead to global convergence, which has been the long cherished vision of the IASC (now IASB) since its creation in 1973 (Benson, 73; IASB, 2003). IFRS adoption can come in many forms and shapes. Some countries (e.g. South Africa, Ghana) have adopted IFRS without modificat

Computers Reshaping Society :: Technology Computers Essays

Computers Reshaping Society The emergence of computers in our society as a means of the gathering and processing of information for the sorting of it has played a major role in reshaping the society it exists in. After the introduction of computers as a business, and later personal, tool, and the large-scale assimilation of such for both purposes, the computer proceeded to shape our society by its own â€Å"needs†. This reshaping took the form suiting all business and personal life of humans around the elementary component of the computer -- information. Information has become the one most important entity in our lives, far more important than most other needs, thanks to the efforts of gathering and organizing the vast amount of information that was brought about by the introduction of computers. The next obvious issue is privacy. Privacy is by definition the withholding of certain information which is of some importance to the group or individual exercising this right. It has now become however an activ e battle with the computers seeking to organize and index all aspects of our life, while we cling to the last bits of this information, to privacy, to the frontier of battle over information. It is not surprising that privacy has become the central issue in today’s â€Å"digital age†. The following is an excerpt from the US government report â€Å"Cryptography’s Role in Securing the Information Society† by the National Research Council. Today's information age requires U.S. businesses to compete on a worldwide basis, sharing sensitive information with appropriate parties while protecting that information against competitors, vandals, suppliers, customers, and foreign governments. Private law-abiding citizens dislike the ease with which personal telephone calls can be tapped, especially those carried on cellular or cordless telephones. Elements of the U.S. civilian infrastructure such as the banking system, the electric power grid, the public switched telecommunications network, and the air traffic control system are central to so many dimensions of modern life that protecting these elements must have a high priority. The federal government has an important stake in assuring that its important and sensitive political, economic, law enforcement, and military information, both classified and unclassified, is protected from foreign governments or other parties whose interests are hostile to those of the United States. As you can see, the federal government is showing great concern over the misuse of information which it hopes to try to protect by enforcing stricter guidelines on the respect of privacy (by methods of encryption). This is a clear reflection of the cultural mindset that was developed by the presence of computers.